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In Hebrew tradition, the kidneys were:1–5
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Together with the heart, considered the most important internal organs
The seat of:
The human spirit
Secret thoughts
Deep desires
Wisdom
Secret advice
Emotions
Prudence
Temperament
Vigor
Associated with inspiration, moral discernment, and reflection
++
In the Bible, the kidneys (always addressed in the plural form kelayot) are:5
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Described as being examined by God as a way of judging an individual
Mentioned as the site of divine punishment for transgressions
Addressed when giving specific instructions on how to proceed with the organs of sacrificial animals
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The Talmudic corpus describes that:5
++
++
The kidneys are mentioned once in the Egyptian Book of the Dead, together with the heart.5
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Eventually, the kidneys were replaced as the center of life by the concept of soul, mind, and brain.1,5
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Galen (131–200 CE) proved that the kidneys produce urine.5
++
Historical individuals reported to have had kidney disease, among many others, include:4
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Emily Dickinson, Buffalo Bill Cody, Ida B. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, Cole Porter, Douglas MacArthur, Howard Hughes, Alfred Hitchcock.
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3rd Century
First (unverified) reported transplant
Transplantation of a lower extremity
Cosmas and Damian (sainted twin Arab physicians)
1954
1966
1967
First liver transplant
Thomas E. Starzl
1968
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REFERENCES
1. +
Maio
G. The metaphorical and mythical use of the kidney in antiquity. Am J Nephrol. 1999;19(2):101–106. doi: 10.1159/000013434
2. +
Dvorjetski
E. The history of nephrology in the Talmudic corpus. Am J Nephrol. 2002;22(2–3):119–129. doi: 10.1159/000063749
3. +
Marczewski
K, Sawicka
A. Nefrologia miłości [Nephrology of love].
Przegl Lek. 2005;62(Suppl 2):61–63.
[PubMed: 16623123]
5. +
Eknoyan
G. The kidneys in the Bible: What happened?. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(12):3464–3471. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2005091007
7. +
Barker
CF, Markmann
JF. Historical overview of transplantation. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013 Apr 1;3(4):a014977. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a014977. PMID: 23545575; PMCID: PMC3684003.